Group work in Primary Schools

Group take a shit in Primary SchoolsGroup bet, know to others as collaborative or conjunct tuition, is defined as a item in which, two or more(prenominal) the great unwashed learn or attempt to learn something together Wikipedia Contributors, 2010. This paper focuses on how fiddleing collaboratively impacts both t all(prenominal)ing and study in primary schools. It describes the background to the development of collaborative erudition and highlights the techniques often employed. The principles to effective base twist are explained, with both advantages and disadvantages noned.Collaborative learning is a pedagogical strategy which utilizes a variety of learning activities to kindle a bookmans understanding of a severaliseicular topic. This is an improvement to traditional learning models also defined as non-interactive lectures, where knowledge is gained from count lectures or the reading of books and articles. conventional learning commands very little interaction or participation from the students, therefore a lot or very little may be learnt depending on the soulfulness. Collaborative learning consequently stands as a constructivist approach to learning, and is identified as originating from a constructivist epistemology, as students are asked to participate and contribute to their own learning and development.The ideas of scholars such as Burner, Kohlberg, Piaget and Vygotsky are used in the development of collaborative learning, which essentially implies that both the student and the environment are actively dynamic entities in the learning process as the student tries to impersonate the lessons. This process requires that knowledge be discovered and translated using language and other learning aides to which the students wad actively relate.Lawrence Kohlberg researched the moral decisions made by children. His investigation is such that he developed an interview process offering a number of scenarios, each with a moral dilemma for whic h he had pre-determined helps. He realized that six stages of moral development existed and that some people are unable to reach closely good levels of ethical interpretation. He thereby concluded that the development of moral reasoning happens in a particular sequence, and that each step of the way is a antecedent to the next KidsDevelopment.co.uk, 2010.Jean Piagets theory of Cognitive Development suggests that individuals go through a series of stages on their way to independent persuasion. Piaget states that all knowledge concerning earth results from actions or operations upon it, which makes it transplant, revealing its stable and variational properties (Piaget, 1980 p222).Lev Vygotsky believed that socialization increases knowledge and often time changes a childs thoughts and behaviours. Vygotsky suggests that learning is straind in three ways imitative, instructed and collaborative. Imitative learning involves the student simply copying what was taught and instructed l earning involves the student following directions previously given. Vygotskys work was focussed on two important ideas. First universe the regularize of Proximal Development (ZPD) this describes the level of oppositeiation mingled with a problem that a student pot solve independently and a problem in which a student entrust require the assistance of others. ZPD is often identified as an individuals level of actual competency relative to their level for potential development. The blurb idea is known as scaffolding and describes the aspect of support given to students when it is desired.Group work allows students to work together in small teams, combining people with varying backgrounds, experiences, technical and intellectual competencies, towards the attainment of a specific objective. each(prenominal) member of the team has the responsibility of learning the material for himself, while also service other members to exoneratedly understand the lesson thus creating an atmo sphere of transaction (Palmer, Peters and Streetman. 2008). Students thereby gain both knowledge and social skills. The use of stem raillerys helps students to explain concepts and ideas by providing immediate feedbacks. Students learn how to troubleshoot cooperatively in order to find the ruff firmness of purpose to a problem. When students formulate their own solutions in this manner, they are truly thinking critically (Davis, Mahler Noddings, 1990).Swortzel expresses that there are two major theoretical approaches to sort out work Motivational and Cognitive (Swortzel, 1997). Group work is seen as motivational because students make do that their success or failure in the attainment of the specified goal is dependent on them being able to work together as a team. They thereby encourage each other to get the assigned problems done properly and on time, in so doing cooperative learning increases students motivation to do academic work (Johnson, Johnson Holubec, 1986).The co gnitive approach suggests that through convocation work students be conform to more critical with their thinking. Students are stimulated to think outside the box, thus acquiring increased levels of perception, awareness, and reasoning and judgment abilities. Group discussions are very interactive with each individual expressing their viewpoint. Within a diverse root, there will be undoubtedly varying opinions consequently highlighting approaches to the same topic.A collaborative framework must first be established before the murder of collaborative learning techniques. The teacher should research collaborative learning and observer other teachers who have already implement the use of group work. The teacher should compass a good understanding of the advantages and disadvantages to group work and must develop a keen appreciation for the technique of scaffolding. The teacher then needs to descend if collaborative learning is ideal for the subject being taught, the type of studen ts and take into account classroom restrictions, if any.Teachers implementing collaborative learning are expected to be qualified in the following areasSpecifying instructional objectivesDetermining group size and assign students to groupsDetermining Group Size and Assign Students to GroupsClassroom arrangementPlanning instructional materials to promote InterdependenceAssigning group rolesAssigning tasksStructuring positive interdependence and accountabilityExplaining the criteria for successSpecifying desired behavioursBefore implementing collaborative learning the teacher should explain to the students their decision for the use of group work and explain the advantages and disadvantages. The determination of group sizes may vary depending on the nature of the task and the workload. Groups can be alike or heterogeneous, grouping students with homogeneous interests and strengths or they may be totally randomly selected. Once groups are established they comm just now do not chan ge very often, so as to allow students to develop a constructive working relationship with each other.It is important that the furniture in the classroom be organized in a way which allows the students to work as a unit, pick outably facing each other, whilst allowing for their flexible movements. Teachers should take into account the existing resources necessary for successful task completion and delay that they are readily accessible by the groups. The instructions and materials a teacher chooses for a group should ensure that each member of the group makes a meaningful contribution and that individual assignments within the group will be evenly distributed.Teachers should structure positive interdependence and accountability by regularly testing both the groups and the members of the group for understanding of the subject matter. Members should be encouraged to be able to actively defend the stance of the group and their own. The criteria for success of the group should be cl early communicated and measures put into place to evaluate the groups performance as a unit as well as the individual performances of the members.Once the groups have been established, teachers need to monitor the behaviour of the students and assist with needs while monitoring. In so doing, teachers may assist with the answering of questions and provide and substitute point of view or opinion. Teachers may also provide feedback on the work completed or the progress made. Should conflicts arise within the groups, teachers should intervene to ensure that such conflicts are quickly resolved and explain the implications of undesirable behaviours. It is also very important that teachers provide approbation and, or motivation where it is deserved.Students play the most important role in the art of collaborative learning. Their roles include and are not limited to, working together, actively listening to each other, keeping records of work and progress, questioning each other, assuming p ersonal responsibility and completing the assigned task.An article written by Dillenbourg and Schneider states that there are a few mechanisms to collaborative learningConflict or Disagreement, suggesting that when comrade to peer conflicts arise, social factors cause learners to ignore the disagreement and to some extent forces them to find a feasible solution to the problem. One aspect of this theory states that diverging viewpoints usually lead to academic gains, while the other states that when conflicts are not verbalized they do not herald positive outcomes (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995). This article draws two conclusions relative to this mechanism one being that slight misunderstandings can be as efficient as a clear conflict between two agents who respectively believe P and not P and the second being that verbal interactions generated to solve conflict are think to learning outcomes (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995).Alternative Proposal also referred to as the confirm ation biases by Dillenbourg and Schneider (1995). In so doing students actively develop ideas that support their suggestions and completely disregard ideas that do not. They often times cannot abandon their idea or suggestion because another suggestion may not be forthcoming however other group members make alternate suggestions.(Self-) explanation the Self-Explanation effect, as it is in known in many an(prenominal) cognitive science literature, describes that in a situation where one student is more knowledge that the other, the latter will automatically learn from the form, and also that the former will grasp a better understanding of the topic being explained as he endeavours to translate into to terms to with the latter student can actively relate. Having successfully explained the more knowledgeable student would have improved upon his skills to pertain and gained improved confidence. Had there been any uncertainties in the explanation, someone even more knowledgeable might be able to clarify.Internalization the article explains this mechanism as one in which students explain or justify their suggestions to each other, the verbalization of such impacts all involved and that the concepts communicated are integrated into the listeners reasoning. Thinking is viewed a discussion that one has with oneself and which develops on the basis of discussions we had with others (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995). The article also states that for this mechanism to be effective a few conditions must be met, One condition is that subjects can only assimilate concepts which are within their zone of proximal development, i.e. within the neighbourhood of the current cognitive level. Another condition is that the less able peer is not left as a passive listener, but participates into the joint problem solving strategy (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995)Appropriation, this is explained as one student observing the ideas or explanations of another and taking those ideas or exp lanations and building on it to make their own. Learning is two-fold as the first student reinterprets his actions relative to that of the second, and the second student got a lowering foundation on which to build.Shared Cognitive Load, this involves the distribution of tasks which will come together to achieve the overall objective of the group. When the workload is even shared between students, each student can work meticulously on the assigned task, thereby eliminating redundancies and improving the efficiency of the group.Mutual Regulation, by employing any of or a combination of the mechanisms previously described, students often have to regulate the actions of each other to ensure that the stipulated guidelines are adhered to for the attainment of their goals.Social Grounding, described lucidly by Dillenbourg and Schneider as the mechanism by which an individual attempts to maintain the belief that his partner has understood what he meant, at least to an extent which is suffi cient to carry out the task at hand (Dillenbourg and Schneider, 1995). This mechanism requires the singer to check for understanding, and where misunderstand is visible to clarify, thereby building a share understanding of the problem.George W. Gagnon. Jr., and Michelle Collay developed another excogitation for collaborative learning and in this model teachers develop a series of steps that their teaching structure follows as listed belowThey develop a situation for the students to explain (Gagnon and Collay, 2004)They select a process for groupings of materials and students (Gagnon and Collay, 2004)They build a bridge between what students already know and what the teachers want them to learn (Gagnon and Collay,2004)They anticipate questions to ask and answer without giving away an explanation (Gagnon and Collay, 2004)They encourage students to exhibit a record of their thinking by sharing it with others (Gagnon and Collay, 2004), andThey solicit students reflections about their learning (Gagnon and Collay, 2004).A proportion of there collaborative techniques, is illustrated in Appendix 1.Johnson, Johnson, and Smith (1991) highlights three key tasks teachers should follow for the evaluation of the efficiency and effectiveness after there group work is completed. Firstly, teachers should provide a closure through summarization. That is, to summarize the lessons important points or to have each group explain their work and the points they found of most significance. second is to evaluate the students learning, by assessing how they have attained or failed to attain the desired outcome and providing the feedback required, allowing students to improve on their ability to work as a group and hence personal development. Thirdly, teachers should make note of the techniques that worked and why they worked and if necessary adjust their lessons.A popular definition of constructivism is that Constructivism is a theory of knowledge which claims that knowledge is not p assively received but actively constructed by the learner, and that the function of cognition is adaptive, serving to organise experience, rather than discover reality(online, 2010) Group work has academic, social and physiologic benefits to both students and teachers. Academic benefits include the development of critical thinking and the active involvement of students in the learning process. The social benefits include the development of social learning systems for students and builds diversity understanding among students and teachers. The physiological benefits include increased self-esteem through peer-to-peer instructions and it reduces the anxiety of students.Although collaborative learning seems to be dependent on the actions and willingness to learn, which should for many be a natural process, there are many disadvantages as there are advantages to is implementation. A few of the obstacles faced are some students prefer to work competitively rather that collaboratively, tea chers lack the ability to readily assess the work produced, teachers sometimes do not know how to measure the effectiveness of their teachings in a collaborative setting, sometimes the assigned tasks are not applicable to a students goals or abilities, and sometimes the tasks are not difficult enough to argufy but not so difficult as to stonewall a conversation. Some groups may be comprised of slow learners who may be viewed as others as in rich, thereby promoting superior behaviour by the fast learners. Table 1, Appendix 2, illustrated various group structures and the advantages and disadvantages to these groups.Nigel Hastings and Karen Chantrey-Wood from Nottingham Trent University explores the many strategies teachers utilize in group work activities, many of which are strongly endorsed by a committee known as the Plowden Committee. By spending time with groups of children, teachers could adjust their teaching to the needs of the individuals of that group to a greater extent tha n when working with an entire class of students as a whole. This also ensures that all children have a reasonable amount of direct contact with their teacher regardless of the fact that they are working in groups Hastings Wood, 2002. This suggests that collaborative learning enhances the occurrence of individualized attention given to students, by introducing man-to-man interactions between students and peers and students and teachers.The article also illustrates that classroom arrangement is very important in ensuring that collaborative learning is efficient and effective. It shows that collaborative learning in wide accepted and very commonly practiced across the globe In primary classrooms throughout the UK, it is standard practice for children to sit around grouped tables usually with four to six children in each group. Such arrangements are also common in primary schools in other English-speaking countries, Australia and USA for example. scarce because this configuration is so normal and so well established in our schools, it is unusual to ask about its rationale or to question its appropriateness Hastings Wood, 2002.An generalization written from an experiment conducted by Gillies and Ashman, One hundred and ninety-two Grade 6 children participated in a study which compared the effects on behavioural interactions and achievement of (a) cooperative learning in which group members were trained to collaborate to facilitate each others learning, and (b) cooperative learning in which members were not trained but were unless told to help each other. Stratified random assignment of participants occurred so that each gender-balanced group consisted of one high-, two medium-, and one low-ability student(Gillies Ashman, 1999). The observations showed that the students who worked in the Trained groups where more responsive and helpful to each other, giving explanations where necessary to assist as they worked together. It showed that students in the untraine d groups were a lot less helpful towards or cooperative with each other. From the results it was also concluded that the children in the trained groups exercised more autonomy with their learning and obtained higher learning outcomes than untrained peers (Gillies Ashman, 1999). This study is one of the many to license to the success of group work.Despite some drawbacks Collaborative learning has numerous benefits, as is explained, ranging from academic to physiological and it implementation in primary schools is quite a positive move. Students at the primary school level are quite impressionable and there is no better time for them to develop the very valuable competences that working in a group has to offer. At the primary school level they are mature enough to have an understanding of what group work requires. Many of the studies conducted were centralized around childhood developments. Students who can successfully work in groups from the primary school level are usually better equip for when entering higher level learning institutions. They would have learnt to comfortably relate with peers and adults, such as teachers or other authority figures, they would have learnt the value of self-expression and self-explanation, actively listen and respect the views of others. These students realize that as individuals we have different backgrounds, experiences and traditions and as such may have diverging approaches to the same problem. These students will also be better able to differentiate between the need to work collaborative and the need to work competitively and in so doing will know when best to apply the respective approaches.This research has revealed that both the teachers and the students play a pivotal role in the success of collaborative learning. Teachers are not expected to only assign tasks and sit back while the students work on their own. Teachers must play an active role throughout the process. They must plan for the assignment with clearly s tructured tasks that will promote collaborative interactions, promote interdependency and stimulate cognitive thinking among students. Teacher must monitor the process providing ongoing feedback and be readily able to resolve conflicts should they arise. Teachers should be able to actively scaffold their students, knowing when their support is needed and that it should gradually be withdraw.Students in order to successfully achieve their objectives in groups must appreciate the benefits of group work. They must have a clear understanding of the desired objective and the sub-task requirement to successfully achieve the objective. They must be able to actively and reflectively listen to each other and utilize creativity and objectivity to work positively together. In so doing they will learn to foster positive work attitudes with others, thereby improving on their interpersonal skills as they prepare for the work world.Appendix 1 tercet Constructivist Design Models 11. The Learning Cy cle2. The Learning Step developed by George W. Gagnon. Jr. and Michelle Collay3. The Information Construction (ICON) model created by Robert O. McClintock and John B. Black, and is very similar to Dillenbourg and Schneider.Appendix 2Table 1 Forms of Cooperative Groups2NAME OF GROUPWHAT IS THIS?WORKS BEST FORBENEFITSDRAWBACKSPair-share2 students with one problem share their ideas or questions. separately person speaks, listens, gives feedback.Content that requires discussion, reflection, or explanation.Increased engagement time, Helps those who are shyFewer perspectives and solutionsJigsawEach member of the small group researches one part of the question /content for a certain amount of time. The members of the group come back together. Each member teaches his/her part to the rest of the group.Content with four or five parts to research.Students gain teaching and research skillsSome students feel pressured by a time limitSplit-class discussionThe class is split into half. Each side discusses /debates their knowledge /beliefs, etc.Debates or discussionsStudents may change their opinion or develop a different perspectiveSome students may speak less with such a large group.Random groups of 3Class is split into groups of 3. The groups discuss the topic.Predicting what will happen, responding to a situation.Receive a variety of feedback, group members are accountableEasy to leave out or team up against a shy student or one who has a different opinionAbility/Interest/Friendship GroupStudents are dual-lane into groups based on some quality that they all have in common.Creating plays/skits or an activity in which students must work together outside of class.Students can work at a pace that best suits them, students are rarely blase and often motivatedIt is unrealistic to find a completely homogeneous group, weaker or unpopular students may be excluded.Diversity GroupsStudents are formed into groups where they come from a wide variety of backgrounds, interests, etc. Exploring geography, history, and diverse lifestyles.There are many opportunities to gain different perspectivesMinorities may become alienatedMulti-aged groupsStudents are divided into groups in which there are a mixture of agesOlder students teaching younger students (i.e. science experiments).Older students- there is less pressure to compete with peers, jr. students fell important that an older person is spending time with themOlder students may be a bad influence Older students may not know how to work with a younger child or an at risk studentPeer-led ConferencesStudents prepare and lead a discussion of material with parents, instructors, students, etc.A major project in which students set up stations for several intelligences.Students get the opportunity to authentically teach, students learn self confidence.Students whose parents are inactive in the school may be alienated from those whose parents participate some students may not be involved in interactions.NotesThese diagr ams were obtained from http//www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/constructivism/implementation_sub1.htmlThis table was obtained from http//projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Cooperative_LearningFrequently_Asked_Questions_about_Cooperative_Learning